diff --git a/client.c b/client.c
index 83aa05ca..db29fdec 100644
--- a/client.c
+++ b/client.c
@@ -272,8 +272,10 @@ client_main(struct event_base *base, int argc, char **argv, int flags)
 	client_peer = proc_add_peer(client_proc, fd, client_dispatch, NULL);
 
 	/* Save these before pledge(). */
-	if ((cwd = getcwd(path, sizeof path)) == NULL)
-		cwd = "/";
+	if ((cwd = getcwd(path, sizeof path)) == NULL) {
+		if ((cwd = find_home()) == NULL)
+			cwd = "/";
+	}
 	if ((ttynam = ttyname(STDIN_FILENO)) == NULL)
 		ttynam = "";
 
diff --git a/cmd-attach-session.c b/cmd-attach-session.c
index c570358c..b339b890 100644
--- a/cmd-attach-session.c
+++ b/cmd-attach-session.c
@@ -51,9 +51,8 @@ cmd_attach_session(struct cmd_q *cmdq, const char *tflag, int dflag, int rflag,
 	struct window_pane	*wp = NULL;
 	const char		*update;
 	char			*cause;
-	int			 fd;
 	struct format_tree	*ft;
-	char			*cp;
+	char			*cwd;
 
 	if (RB_EMPTY(&sessions)) {
 		cmdq_error(cmdq, "no sessions");
@@ -97,18 +96,17 @@ cmd_attach_session(struct cmd_q *cmdq, const char *tflag, int dflag, int rflag,
 		ft = format_create();
 		format_defaults(ft, cmd_find_client(cmdq, NULL, 1), s,
 		    NULL, NULL);
-		cp = format_expand(ft, cflag);
+		cwd = format_expand(ft, cflag);
 		format_free(ft);
 
-		fd = open(cp, O_RDONLY|O_DIRECTORY);
-		free(cp);
-		if (fd == -1) {
+		if (access(cwd, X_OK) != 0) {
+			free((void *)cwd);
 			cmdq_error(cmdq, "bad working directory: %s",
 			    strerror(errno));
 			return (CMD_RETURN_ERROR);
 		}
-		close(s->cwd);
-		s->cwd = fd;
+		free((void *)s->cwd);
+		s->cwd = cwd;
 	}
 
 	if (c->session != NULL) {
diff --git a/cmd-if-shell.c b/cmd-if-shell.c
index 0271fdea..a9c84261 100644
--- a/cmd-if-shell.c
+++ b/cmd-if-shell.c
@@ -66,7 +66,7 @@ cmd_if_shell_exec(struct cmd *self, struct cmd_q *cmdq)
 	struct winlink			*wl = NULL;
 	struct window_pane		*wp = NULL;
 	struct format_tree		*ft;
-	int				 cwd;
+	const char			*cwd;
 
 	if (args_has(args, 't')) {
 		wl = cmd_find_pane(cmdq, args_get(args, 't'), &s, &wp);
@@ -83,7 +83,7 @@ cmd_if_shell_exec(struct cmd *self, struct cmd_q *cmdq)
 		else if (s != NULL)
 			cwd = s->cwd;
 		else
-			cwd = -1;
+			cwd = NULL;
 	}
 
 	ft = format_create();
diff --git a/cmd-load-buffer.c b/cmd-load-buffer.c
index 897807d0..c55e6c11 100644
--- a/cmd-load-buffer.c
+++ b/cmd-load-buffer.c
@@ -49,10 +49,10 @@ cmd_load_buffer_exec(struct cmd *self, struct cmd_q *cmdq)
 	struct client	*c = cmdq->client;
 	struct session  *s;
 	FILE		*f;
-	const char	*path, *bufname;
-	char		*pdata, *new_pdata, *cause;
+	const char	*path, *bufname, *cwd;
+	char		*pdata, *new_pdata, *cause, *file, resolved[PATH_MAX];
 	size_t		 psize;
-	int		 ch, error, cwd, fd;
+	int		 ch, error;
 
 	bufname = NULL;
 	if (args_has(args, 'b'))
@@ -75,13 +75,16 @@ cmd_load_buffer_exec(struct cmd *self, struct cmd_q *cmdq)
 	else if ((s = cmd_find_current(cmdq)) != NULL)
 		cwd = s->cwd;
 	else
-		cwd = AT_FDCWD;
+		cwd = ".";
 
-	if ((fd = openat(cwd, path, O_RDONLY)) == -1 ||
-	    (f = fdopen(fd, "rb")) == NULL) {
-		if (fd != -1)
-			close(fd);
-		cmdq_error(cmdq, "%s: %s", path, strerror(errno));
+	xasprintf(&file, "%s/%s", cwd, path);
+	if (realpath(file, resolved) == NULL)
+		f = NULL;
+	else
+		f = fopen(resolved, "rb");
+	free(file);
+	if (f == NULL) {
+		cmdq_error(cmdq, "%s: %s", resolved, strerror(errno));
 		return (CMD_RETURN_ERROR);
 	}
 
@@ -97,7 +100,7 @@ cmd_load_buffer_exec(struct cmd *self, struct cmd_q *cmdq)
 		pdata[psize++] = ch;
 	}
 	if (ferror(f)) {
-		cmdq_error(cmdq, "%s: read error", path);
+		cmdq_error(cmdq, "%s: read error", resolved);
 		goto error;
 	}
 	if (pdata != NULL)
diff --git a/cmd-new-session.c b/cmd-new-session.c
index 7b637bc6..90bb2e0e 100644
--- a/cmd-new-session.c
+++ b/cmd-new-session.c
@@ -63,10 +63,9 @@ cmd_new_session_exec(struct cmd *self, struct cmd_q *cmdq)
 	struct environ		*env;
 	struct termios		 tio, *tiop;
 	const char		*newname, *target, *update, *errstr, *template;
-	const char		*path;
+	const char		*path, *cwd, *to_free;
 	char		       **argv, *cmd, *cause, *cp;
-	int			 detached, already_attached, idx, cwd, fd = -1;
-	int			 argc;
+	int			 detached, already_attached, idx, argc;
 	u_int			 sx, sy;
 	struct format_tree	*ft;
 	struct environ_entry	*envent;
@@ -118,32 +117,26 @@ cmd_new_session_exec(struct cmd *self, struct cmd_q *cmdq)
 		already_attached = 1;
 
 	/* Get the new session working directory. */
+	to_free = NULL;
 	if (args_has(args, 'c')) {
 		ft = format_create();
 		format_defaults(ft, cmd_find_client(cmdq, NULL, 1), NULL, NULL,
 		    NULL);
-		cp = format_expand(ft, args_get(args, 'c'));
+		to_free = cwd = format_expand(ft, args_get(args, 'c'));
 		format_free(ft);
 
-		if (cp != NULL && *cp != '\0') {
-			fd = open(cp, O_RDONLY|O_DIRECTORY);
-			free(cp);
-			if (fd == -1) {
-				cmdq_error(cmdq, "bad working directory: %s",
-				    strerror(errno));
-				return (CMD_RETURN_ERROR);
-			}
-		} else
-			free(cp);
-		cwd = fd;
+		if (access(cwd, X_OK) != 0) {
+			free((void *)cwd);
+			cmdq_error(cmdq, "bad working directory: %s",
+			    strerror(errno));
+			return (CMD_RETURN_ERROR);
+		}
 	} else if (c != NULL && c->session == NULL)
 		cwd = c->cwd;
 	else if ((c0 = cmd_find_client(cmdq, NULL, 1)) != NULL)
 		cwd = c0->session->cwd;
-	else {
-		fd = open(".", O_RDONLY);
-		cwd = fd;
-	}
+	else
+		cwd = ".";
 
 	/*
 	 * If this is a new client, check for nesting and save the termios
@@ -311,12 +304,12 @@ cmd_new_session_exec(struct cmd *self, struct cmd_q *cmdq)
 	if (!detached)
 		cmdq->client_exit = 0;
 
-	if (fd != -1)
-		close(fd);
+	if (to_free != NULL)
+		free((void *)to_free);
 	return (CMD_RETURN_NORMAL);
 
 error:
-	if (fd != -1)
-		close(fd);
+	if (to_free != NULL)
+		free((void *)to_free);
 	return (CMD_RETURN_ERROR);
 }
diff --git a/cmd-new-window.c b/cmd-new-window.c
index 70e70c68..a5085fff 100644
--- a/cmd-new-window.c
+++ b/cmd-new-window.c
@@ -49,9 +49,9 @@ cmd_new_window_exec(struct cmd *self, struct cmd_q *cmdq)
 	struct args		*args = self->args;
 	struct session		*s;
 	struct winlink		*wl;
-	const char		*cmd, *path, *template;
+	const char		*cmd, *path, *template, *cwd, *to_free;
 	char		       **argv, *cause, *cp;
-	int			 argc, idx, detached, cwd, fd = -1;
+	int			 argc, idx, detached;
 	struct format_tree	*ft;
 	struct environ_entry	*envent;
 
@@ -92,24 +92,20 @@ cmd_new_window_exec(struct cmd *self, struct cmd_q *cmdq)
 	if (envent != NULL)
 		path = envent->value;
 
+	to_free = NULL;
 	if (args_has(args, 'c')) {
 		ft = format_create();
 		format_defaults(ft, cmd_find_client(cmdq, NULL, 1), s, NULL,
 		    NULL);
-		cp = format_expand(ft, args_get(args, 'c'));
+		cwd = format_expand(ft, args_get(args, 'c'));
 		format_free(ft);
 
-		if (cp != NULL && *cp != '\0') {
-			fd = open(cp, O_RDONLY|O_DIRECTORY);
-			free(cp);
-			if (fd == -1) {
-				cmdq_error(cmdq, "bad working directory: %s",
-				    strerror(errno));
-				return (CMD_RETURN_ERROR);
-			}
-		} else
-			free(cp);
-		cwd = fd;
+		if (access(cwd, X_OK) != 0) {
+			free((void *)cwd);
+			cmdq_error(cmdq, "bad working directory: %s",
+			    strerror(errno));
+			return (CMD_RETURN_ERROR);
+		}
 	} else if (cmdq->client != NULL && cmdq->client->session == NULL)
 		cwd = cmdq->client->cwd;
 	else
@@ -165,12 +161,12 @@ cmd_new_window_exec(struct cmd *self, struct cmd_q *cmdq)
 		format_free(ft);
 	}
 
-	if (fd != -1)
-		close(fd);
+	if (to_free != NULL)
+		free((void *)to_free);
 	return (CMD_RETURN_NORMAL);
 
 error:
-	if (fd != -1)
-		close(fd);
+	if (to_free != NULL)
+		free((void *)to_free);
 	return (CMD_RETURN_ERROR);
 }
diff --git a/cmd-respawn-pane.c b/cmd-respawn-pane.c
index 864b45b8..a50b9d06 100644
--- a/cmd-respawn-pane.c
+++ b/cmd-respawn-pane.c
@@ -81,7 +81,7 @@ cmd_respawn_pane_exec(struct cmd *self, struct cmd_q *cmdq)
 	if (envent != NULL)
 		path = envent->value;
 
-	if (window_pane_spawn(wp, args->argc, args->argv, path, NULL, -1, env,
+	if (window_pane_spawn(wp, args->argc, args->argv, path, NULL, NULL, env,
 	    s->tio, &cause) != 0) {
 		cmdq_error(cmdq, "respawn pane failed: %s", cause);
 		free(cause);
diff --git a/cmd-respawn-window.c b/cmd-respawn-window.c
index 8d8332b1..93af1b68 100644
--- a/cmd-respawn-window.c
+++ b/cmd-respawn-window.c
@@ -84,7 +84,7 @@ cmd_respawn_window_exec(struct cmd *self, struct cmd_q *cmdq)
 	if (envent != NULL)
 		path = envent->value;
 
-	if (window_pane_spawn(wp, args->argc, args->argv, path, NULL, -1, env,
+	if (window_pane_spawn(wp, args->argc, args->argv, path, NULL, NULL, env,
 	    s->tio, &cause) != 0) {
 		cmdq_error(cmdq, "respawn window failed: %s", cause);
 		free(cause);
diff --git a/cmd-run-shell.c b/cmd-run-shell.c
index 17ac0f76..def3ef01 100644
--- a/cmd-run-shell.c
+++ b/cmd-run-shell.c
@@ -80,7 +80,7 @@ cmd_run_shell_exec(struct cmd *self, struct cmd_q *cmdq)
 	struct winlink			*wl = NULL;
 	struct window_pane		*wp = NULL;
 	struct format_tree		*ft;
-	int				 cwd;
+	const char			*cwd;
 
 	if (args_has(args, 't')) {
 		wl = cmd_find_pane(cmdq, args_get(args, 't'), &s, &wp);
@@ -97,7 +97,7 @@ cmd_run_shell_exec(struct cmd *self, struct cmd_q *cmdq)
 		else if (s != NULL)
 			cwd = s->cwd;
 		else
-			cwd = -1;
+			cwd = NULL;
 	}
 
 	ft = format_create();
diff --git a/cmd-save-buffer.c b/cmd-save-buffer.c
index 1e020934..6c55fabb 100644
--- a/cmd-save-buffer.c
+++ b/cmd-save-buffer.c
@@ -56,10 +56,10 @@ cmd_save_buffer_exec(struct cmd *self, struct cmd_q *cmdq)
 	struct client		*c = cmdq->client;
 	struct session          *s;
 	struct paste_buffer	*pb;
-	const char		*path, *bufname, *bufdata, *start, *end;
-	char			*msg;
+	const char		*path, *bufname, *bufdata, *start, *end, *cwd;
+	const char		*flags;
+	char			*msg, *file, resolved[PATH_MAX];
 	size_t			 size, used, msglen, bufsize;
-	int			 cwd, fd;
 	FILE			*f;
 
 	if (!args_has(args, 'b')) {
@@ -96,26 +96,25 @@ cmd_save_buffer_exec(struct cmd *self, struct cmd_q *cmdq)
 	else if ((s = cmd_find_current(cmdq)) != NULL)
 		cwd = s->cwd;
 	else
-		cwd = AT_FDCWD;
+		cwd = ".";
 
-	f = NULL;
-	if (args_has(self->args, 'a')) {
-		fd = openat(cwd, path, O_CREAT|O_RDWR|O_APPEND, 0600);
-		if (fd != -1)
-			f = fdopen(fd, "ab");
-	} else {
-		fd = openat(cwd, path, O_CREAT|O_RDWR|O_TRUNC, 0600);
-		if (fd != -1)
-			f = fdopen(fd, "wb");
-	}
+	flags = "wb";
+	if (args_has(self->args, 'a'))
+		flags = "ab";
+
+	xasprintf(&file, "%s/%s", cwd, path);
+	if (realpath(file, resolved) == NULL)
+		f = NULL;
+	else
+		f = fopen(resolved, flags);
+	free(file);
 	if (f == NULL) {
-		if (fd != -1)
-			close(fd);
-		cmdq_error(cmdq, "%s: %s", path, strerror(errno));
+		cmdq_error(cmdq, "%s: %s", resolved, strerror(errno));
 		return (CMD_RETURN_ERROR);
 	}
+
 	if (fwrite(bufdata, 1, bufsize, f) != bufsize) {
-		cmdq_error(cmdq, "%s: fwrite error", path);
+		cmdq_error(cmdq, "%s: write error", resolved);
 		fclose(f);
 		return (CMD_RETURN_ERROR);
 	}
diff --git a/cmd-split-window.c b/cmd-split-window.c
index ec37e0d7..b8a03953 100644
--- a/cmd-split-window.c
+++ b/cmd-split-window.c
@@ -52,10 +52,10 @@ cmd_split_window_exec(struct cmd *self, struct cmd_q *cmdq)
 	struct window		*w;
 	struct window_pane	*wp, *new_wp = NULL;
 	struct environ		*env;
-	const char		*cmd, *path, *shell, *template;
+	const char		*cmd, *path, *shell, *template, *cwd, *to_free;
 	char		       **argv, *cause, *new_cause, *cp;
 	u_int			 hlimit;
-	int			 argc, size, percentage, cwd, fd = -1;
+	int			 argc, size, percentage;
 	enum layout_type	 type;
 	struct layout_cell	*lc;
 	struct format_tree	*ft;
@@ -85,24 +85,20 @@ cmd_split_window_exec(struct cmd *self, struct cmd_q *cmdq)
 		argv = args->argv;
 	}
 
+	to_free = NULL;
 	if (args_has(args, 'c')) {
 		ft = format_create();
 		format_defaults(ft, cmd_find_client(cmdq, NULL, 1), s, NULL,
 		    NULL);
-		cp = format_expand(ft, args_get(args, 'c'));
+		to_free = cwd = format_expand(ft, args_get(args, 'c'));
 		format_free(ft);
 
-		if (cp != NULL && *cp != '\0') {
-			fd = open(cp, O_RDONLY|O_DIRECTORY);
-			free(cp);
-			if (fd == -1) {
-				cmdq_error(cmdq, "bad working directory: %s",
-				    strerror(errno));
-				return (CMD_RETURN_ERROR);
-			}
-		} else
-			free(cp);
-		cwd = fd;
+		if (access(cwd, X_OK) != 0) {
+			free((void *)cwd);
+			cmdq_error(cmdq, "bad working directory: %s",
+			    strerror(errno));
+			return (CMD_RETURN_ERROR);
+		}
 	} else if (cmdq->client != NULL && cmdq->client->session == NULL)
 		cwd = cmdq->client->cwd;
 	else
@@ -187,8 +183,8 @@ cmd_split_window_exec(struct cmd *self, struct cmd_q *cmdq)
 	}
 	notify_window_layout_changed(w);
 
-	if (fd != -1)
-		close(fd);
+	if (to_free != NULL)
+		free((void *)to_free);
 	return (CMD_RETURN_NORMAL);
 
 error:
@@ -199,7 +195,8 @@ error:
 	}
 	cmdq_error(cmdq, "create pane failed: %s", cause);
 	free(cause);
-	if (fd != -1)
-		close(fd);
+
+	if (to_free != NULL)
+		free((void *)to_free);
 	return (CMD_RETURN_ERROR);
 }
diff --git a/format.c b/format.c
index 3c0f4a39..21b341bf 100644
--- a/format.c
+++ b/format.c
@@ -241,7 +241,7 @@ format_job_get(struct format_tree *ft, const char *cmd)
 
 	t = time(NULL);
 	if (fj->job == NULL && ((ft->flags & FORMAT_FORCE) || fj->last != t)) {
-		fj->job = job_run(fj->cmd, NULL, -1, format_job_callback,
+		fj->job = job_run(fj->cmd, NULL, NULL, format_job_callback,
 		    NULL, fj);
 		if (fj->job == NULL) {
 			free(fj->out);
diff --git a/job.c b/job.c
index 47274db1..191d0a0f 100644
--- a/job.c
+++ b/job.c
@@ -40,13 +40,14 @@ struct joblist	all_jobs = LIST_HEAD_INITIALIZER(all_jobs);
 
 /* Start a job running, if it isn't already. */
 struct job *
-job_run(const char *cmd, struct session *s, int cwd,
+job_run(const char *cmd, struct session *s, const char *cwd,
     void (*callbackfn)(struct job *), void (*freefn)(void *), void *data)
 {
 	struct job	*job;
 	struct environ	*env;
 	pid_t		 pid;
 	int		 nullfd, out[2];
+	const char	*home;
 
 	if (socketpair(AF_UNIX, SOCK_STREAM, PF_UNSPEC, out) != 0)
 		return (NULL);
@@ -66,8 +67,10 @@ job_run(const char *cmd, struct session *s, int cwd,
 	case 0:		/* child */
 		clear_signals(1);
 
-		if (cwd != -1 && fchdir(cwd) != 0)
-			chdir("/");
+		if (cwd == NULL || chdir(cwd) != 0) {
+			if ((home = find_home()) == NULL || chdir(home) != 0)
+				chdir("/");
+		}
 
 		environ_push(env);
 		environ_free(env);
diff --git a/server-client.c b/server-client.c
index bf18cae7..a800a1aa 100644
--- a/server-client.c
+++ b/server-client.c
@@ -96,7 +96,7 @@ server_client_create(int fd)
 	c->environ = environ_create();
 
 	c->fd = -1;
-	c->cwd = -1;
+	c->cwd = NULL;
 
 	c->cmdq = cmdq_new(c);
 	c->cmdq->client_exit = 1;
@@ -192,7 +192,7 @@ server_client_lost(struct client *c)
 	screen_free(&c->status);
 
 	free(c->title);
-	close(c->cwd);
+	free((void *)c->cwd);
 
 	evtimer_del(&c->repeat_timer);
 
@@ -1107,7 +1107,7 @@ error:
 void
 server_client_dispatch_identify(struct client *c, struct imsg *imsg)
 {
-	const char	*data;
+	const char	*data, *home;
 	size_t	 	 datalen;
 	int		 flags;
 
@@ -1140,8 +1140,12 @@ server_client_dispatch_identify(struct client *c, struct imsg *imsg)
 	case MSG_IDENTIFY_CWD:
 		if (datalen == 0 || data[datalen - 1] != '\0')
 			fatalx("bad MSG_IDENTIFY_CWD string");
-		if ((c->cwd = open(data, O_RDONLY)) == -1)
-			c->cwd = open("/", O_RDONLY);
+		if (access(data, X_OK) == 0)
+			c->cwd = xstrdup(data);
+		else if ((home = find_home()) != NULL)
+			c->cwd = xstrdup(home);
+		else
+			c->cwd = xstrdup("/");
 		log_debug("client %p IDENTIFY_CWD %s", c, data);
 		break;
 	case MSG_IDENTIFY_STDIN:
diff --git a/session.c b/session.c
index 9f086bbd..e4dadc97 100644
--- a/session.c
+++ b/session.c
@@ -103,8 +103,8 @@ session_find_by_id(u_int id)
 /* Create a new session. */
 struct session *
 session_create(const char *name, int argc, char **argv, const char *path,
-    int cwd, struct environ *env, struct termios *tio, int idx, u_int sx,
-    u_int sy, char **cause)
+    const char *cwd, struct environ *env, struct termios *tio, int idx,
+    u_int sx, u_int sy, char **cause)
 {
 	struct session	*s;
 	struct winlink	*wl;
@@ -113,7 +113,7 @@ session_create(const char *name, int argc, char **argv, const char *path,
 	s->references = 1;
 	s->flags = 0;
 
-	s->cwd = dup(cwd);
+	s->cwd = xstrdup(cwd);
 
 	s->curw = NULL;
 	TAILQ_INIT(&s->lastw);
@@ -223,7 +223,7 @@ session_destroy(struct session *s)
 		winlink_remove(&s->windows, wl);
 	}
 
-	close(s->cwd);
+	free((void *)s->cwd);
 
 	session_unref(s);
 }
@@ -314,7 +314,7 @@ session_previous_session(struct session *s)
 /* Create a new window on a session. */
 struct winlink *
 session_new(struct session *s, const char *name, int argc, char **argv,
-    const char *path, int cwd, int idx, char **cause)
+    const char *path, const char *cwd, int idx, char **cause)
 {
 	struct window	*w;
 	struct winlink	*wl;
diff --git a/tmux.h b/tmux.h
index 0fd8062e..6f54b1da 100644
--- a/tmux.h
+++ b/tmux.h
@@ -832,7 +832,7 @@ struct window_pane {
 	int		 argc;
 	char	       **argv;
 	char		*shell;
-	int		 cwd;
+	const char	*cwd;
 
 	pid_t		 pid;
 	char		 tty[TTY_NAME_MAX];
@@ -979,7 +979,7 @@ struct session {
 	u_int		 id;
 
 	char		*name;
-	int		 cwd;
+	const char	*cwd;
 
 	struct timeval	 creation_time;
 	struct timeval	 last_attached_time;
@@ -1184,7 +1184,7 @@ struct client {
 	struct environ	*environ;
 
 	char		*title;
-	int		 cwd;
+	const char	*cwd;
 
 	char		*term;
 	char		*ttyname;
@@ -1539,7 +1539,7 @@ int	options_table_find(const char *, const struct options_table_entry **,
 
 /* job.c */
 extern struct joblist all_jobs;
-struct job *job_run(const char *, struct session *, int,
+struct job *job_run(const char *, struct session *, const char *,
 	    void (*)(struct job *), void (*)(void *), void *);
 void	job_free(struct job *);
 void	job_died(struct job *, int);
@@ -1985,8 +1985,8 @@ struct window	*window_find_by_id(u_int);
 void		 window_update_activity(struct window *);
 struct window	*window_create1(u_int, u_int);
 struct window	*window_create(const char *, int, char **, const char *,
-		     const char *, int, struct environ *, struct termios *,
-		     u_int, u_int, u_int, char **);
+		     const char *, const char *, struct environ *,
+		     struct termios *, u_int, u_int, u_int, char **);
 void		 window_destroy(struct window *);
 struct window_pane *window_get_active_at(struct window *, u_int, u_int);
 struct window_pane *window_find_string(struct window *, const char *);
@@ -2013,7 +2013,7 @@ struct window_pane *window_pane_find_by_id(u_int);
 struct window_pane *window_pane_create(struct window *, u_int, u_int, u_int);
 void		 window_pane_destroy(struct window_pane *);
 int		 window_pane_spawn(struct window_pane *, int, char **,
-		     const char *, const char *, int, struct environ *,
+		     const char *, const char *, const char *, struct environ *,
 		     struct termios *, char **);
 void		 window_pane_resize(struct window_pane *, u_int, u_int);
 void		 window_pane_alternate_on(struct window_pane *,
@@ -2147,8 +2147,8 @@ struct session	*session_find(const char *);
 struct session	*session_find_by_id_str(const char *);
 struct session	*session_find_by_id(u_int);
 struct session	*session_create(const char *, int, char **, const char *,
-		     int, struct environ *, struct termios *, int, u_int,
-		     u_int, char **);
+		     const char *, struct environ *, struct termios *, int,
+		     u_int, u_int, char **);
 void		 session_destroy(struct session *);
 void		 session_unref(struct session *);
 int		 session_check_name(const char *);
@@ -2156,7 +2156,7 @@ void		 session_update_activity(struct session *, struct timeval *);
 struct session	*session_next_session(struct session *);
 struct session	*session_previous_session(struct session *);
 struct winlink	*session_new(struct session *, const char *, int, char **,
-		     const char *, int, int, char **);
+		     const char *, const char *, int, char **);
 struct winlink	*session_attach(struct session *, struct window *, int,
 		     char **);
 int		 session_detach(struct session *, struct winlink *);
diff --git a/window-copy.c b/window-copy.c
index 3ba27c80..c5c053bf 100644
--- a/window-copy.c
+++ b/window-copy.c
@@ -1488,7 +1488,7 @@ window_copy_copy_pipe(struct window_pane *wp, struct session *sess,
 	format_defaults(ft, NULL, sess, NULL, wp);
 	expanded = format_expand(ft, arg);
 
-	job = job_run(expanded, sess, -1, NULL, NULL, NULL);
+	job = job_run(expanded, sess, NULL, NULL, NULL, NULL);
 	bufferevent_write(job->event, buf, len);
 
 	free(expanded);
diff --git a/window.c b/window.c
index eb0f8ac3..3b9958b1 100644
--- a/window.c
+++ b/window.c
@@ -315,8 +315,8 @@ window_create1(u_int sx, u_int sy)
 
 struct window *
 window_create(const char *name, int argc, char **argv, const char *path,
-    const char *shell, int cwd, struct environ *env, struct termios *tio,
-    u_int sx, u_int sy, u_int hlimit, char **cause)
+    const char *shell, const char *cwd, struct environ *env,
+    struct termios *tio, u_int sx, u_int sy, u_int hlimit, char **cause)
 {
 	struct window		*w;
 	struct window_pane	*wp;
@@ -735,7 +735,7 @@ window_pane_create(struct window *w, u_int sx, u_int sy, u_int hlimit)
 	wp->argc = 0;
 	wp->argv = NULL;
 	wp->shell = NULL;
-	wp->cwd = -1;
+	wp->cwd = NULL;
 
 	wp->fd = -1;
 	wp->event = NULL;
@@ -798,7 +798,7 @@ window_pane_destroy(struct window_pane *wp)
 
 	RB_REMOVE(window_pane_tree, &all_window_panes, wp);
 
-	close(wp->cwd);
+	free((void *)wp->cwd);
 	free(wp->shell);
 	cmd_free_argv(wp->argc, wp->argv);
 	free(wp);
@@ -806,12 +806,12 @@ window_pane_destroy(struct window_pane *wp)
 
 int
 window_pane_spawn(struct window_pane *wp, int argc, char **argv,
-    const char *path, const char *shell, int cwd, struct environ *env,
+    const char *path, const char *shell, const char *cwd, struct environ *env,
     struct termios *tio, char **cause)
 {
 	struct winsize	 ws;
 	char		*argv0, *cmd, **argvp, paneid[16];
-	const char	*ptr, *first;
+	const char	*ptr, *first, *home;
 	struct termios	 tio2;
 #ifdef HAVE_UTEMPTER
 	char		 s[32];
@@ -831,9 +831,9 @@ window_pane_spawn(struct window_pane *wp, int argc, char **argv,
 		free(wp->shell);
 		wp->shell = xstrdup(shell);
 	}
-	if (cwd != -1) {
-		close(wp->cwd);
-		wp->cwd = dup(cwd);
+	if (cwd != NULL) {
+		free((void *)wp->cwd);
+		wp->cwd = xstrdup(cwd);
 	}
 
 	cmd = cmd_stringify_argv(wp->argc, wp->argv);
@@ -852,8 +852,10 @@ window_pane_spawn(struct window_pane *wp, int argc, char **argv,
 		free(cmd);
 		return (-1);
 	case 0:
-		if (fchdir(wp->cwd) != 0)
-			chdir("/");
+		if (chdir(wp->cwd) != 0) {
+			if ((home = find_home()) == NULL || chdir(home) != 0)
+				chdir("/");
+		}
 
 		if (tcgetattr(STDIN_FILENO, &tio2) != 0)
 			fatal("tcgetattr failed");